Operation Compass Totally Explained

Everything about Operation Compass totally explained

Operation Compass was the first major World War II Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Empire and British Commonwealth forces pushing across a great stretch of Libya and capturing over 100,000 Italian soldiers with very few casualties of their own.

Prelude

After the Italian declaration of war on France and the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940, the Italian forces in Libya and the Commonwealth forces in Egypt began a series of cross-border raids. Among the more notable achievements of these raids were the capture of Fort Capuzzo by the British Army's 11th Hussars on June 17. One early British raid on 12 June resulted in 63 Italians being taken prisoner. Benito Mussolini urged the Libyan Governor-General Marshal Italo Balbo to launch a large scale offensive against the British in Egypt. Mussolini's immediate aim was to capture the Suez Canal, ultimately wanting to link up his forces in Libya with those in Italian East Africa. But, for many reasons, Balbo was reluctant. After Balbo's accidental death on June 28, Mussolini was just as adamant in urging his replacement, General Rodolfo Graziani, to attack. Like Balbo, Graziani too was reluctant.
   Graziani was the commander of the Italian Tenth Army in Libya, then an Italian colony, with the Fifth Army located towards the west in Tripolitania and the Tenth Army located towards the east in Cyrenaica. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, the assets of the Fifth Army were used more and more to supplement the needs of the Tenth Army.
   Initially the British Middle East Command under General Archibald Wavell only had 30,000 troops stationed in Egypt to defend against the 150,000 Italian troops stationed in Libya. Airplanes available to both sides in the desert tended to be older biplanes. The Italians had Fiat CR.32s and Fiat CR.42s while the British had Gloster Gladiators.
   Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of his larger but largely un-mechanized force to defeat the British, who, though smaller in numbers, were largely motorised.
   The Tenth Army controlled the equivalent of three Corps: the 21st Corps (with 1st and 2nd Blackshirt Divisions and 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene" under command), the 23rd Corps (with 4th Blackshirt Division and 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" under command) and the Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops (1st and 2nd Libyan Divisions "Sibelle" and "Pescatori" under command). In addition, Graziani had the partially motorized and lightly armoured "Maletti Group". This group was commanded by General Pietro Maletti and comprised some 2,500 infantry and 70 tanks. Maletti Group's tanks were evenly divided between the mechanically reliable but machine gun-armed Fiat L3s tankettes and the heavier Fiat M11/39. This tank featured a hull-mounted 37 mm tank gun which was difficult to bring to bear on targets because of its lack of available traverse, was relatively poorly armoured and was mechanically unreliable. In comparison, the British were able to field some faster Cruiser tanks (the Mk I, Mk II, and Mk III) which were more than match to the M11/39s. The British also had a limited number of heavy Matilda Infantry tanks that, while slow, were strongly armored and well armed. The armour of the Matilda tanks couldn't be pierced by any of the available Italian tank guns or anti-tank guns available at that time though Italian anti-aircraft guns could be used against them in the same manner as the German 88 mm.

The Tenth Army Advances

Even so, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the Tenth Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian troops advanced over the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt. In addition to several infantry divisions and the Maletti Group, the seven attacking divisions included most of the available Libyan units. The Savari formed part of the Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia (Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops), which included desert and camel troops, infantry battalions, artillery and irregular cavalry ("Spahis"). The small British force at Sollum withdrew in front of Graziani's advance towards the main defensive positions east of Mersa Matruh. The Italian advance was harassed by mobile elements of 7th Armoured Division. After recapturing Fort Capuzzo, progress was slow. The Italians advanced approximately in three days. The advance stopped at the town of Sidi Barrani on September 16. The Italians then dug in, fortified their positions, and awaited reinforcements and supplies. They created a number of fortified camps around Sidi Barrani which ran from Maktila east of the coast southward through Tummar East, Tummar West and Nibeiwa to Sofafi on the escarpment to the south-west.
According to Virginio Gayda, Italian newspaper editor and mouthpiece for Mussolini's fascist regime: "Nothing can save Britain now."
However, the Royal Navy had transferred assets, including the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious to the Mediterranean to reinforce the British Mediterranean Fleet, making provisioning of North Africa problematic for the Italians.

Initial British attack

Following the Italian advance, Wavell ordered the commander British Troops Egypt, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson to plan a limited operation to push the Italians back. Wavell had noted that the Italian defensive positions were dispersed with the fortified camps separated by large distances which meant they couldn't provide mutual support. Operation Compass was originally planned as a five day raid but was extended after its initial success.
   The British plan was for 7th Armoured Division's Support Group to observe the Italian camps at Sofafi to prevent and prevent any intervention from them while the rest of the armoured division and 4th Indian Division passed through the gap between Sofafi and Nibeiwa. A brigade from the Indian Division supported by Infantry tanks of 7th Royal Tank Regiment would then attack Nibeiwa from the west while the Armoured Division protected their northern flank. Once Nibeiwa was captured a second Indian brigade, gain supported by 7th RTR would attack the Tummars. Meanwhile the Matruh Garrison Force (3rd battalion Coldstream Guards plus some artillery) would contain the enemy camp at Maktila. Assuming a successful outcome, Sidi Barrani would be attacked on the second day and a westward exploitation would follow.
   Preparations were made in the strictest secrecy and many of the troops involved in Operation Compass were not informed that the operation wasn't an exercise until they were very nearly engaged in combat.
   On the nights of 7 December and December 8 1940 the Western Desert Force under the command of Major-General Richard O'Connor and comprising British 7th Armoured Division and Indian 4th Infantry Division reinforced by British 16th Infantry Brigade advanced a total of to their start positions for the attack. At 07.00 on9 December 11th Indian Infantry Brigade with 7 RTR in support attacked Nibeiwa, occupied by the Maletti Group. The British knew it as the "Battle of the Camps". The "Battle of the Marmarica" name was derived from the name of the coastal plain where the battle was fought. The "Battle of the Camps" name was derived from the individual Italian camps set up in a defensive line outside of Sidi Barrani.
   By 08.30, after some fierce fighting, Nibeiwa was taken and Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse, commander of 4th Indian Division, ordered his 5th Indian Infantry Brigade to move up and take positions for the attack on the Tummars.
   The Italian defenses were better suited to a colonial war. Within five hours of the onset of combat, the Italian positions were over run, General Pietro Maletti was dead, and about 4,000 Italian and Libyan soldiers were dead or captured. Over the next few days the British 4th and 7th Armoured Brigades encountered significant resistance and found it extremely difficult to advance. Due praise went to Italian anti-tank and artillery gunners who managed to destroy eighteen British tanks but eventually, 237 artillery pieces, 73 light and medium tanks, and about 38,300 Italian and Libyan soldiers would be destroyed or captured. The Rajputana Rifles had lost 41 officers and 394 men killed and wounded in the attacks and dozens of British tanks had been destroyed or disabled. The British and Indian forces having licked their wounds then moved quickly west along the Via della Vittoria, through Halfaya Pass, and again captured Fort Capuzzo in Libya.
   Ian W. Walker describes the destruction of Maletti Group in his 2003 book Iron Hulls, Iron Hearts. The following is quoted from a review of that book:
   Section commander Nazzareno Ganino, 86th Infantry Regiment, 60th "Sabratha" Division later described the patrol actions of the period:
O'Connor wanted to continue attacking. He wanted to get at least as far as Benghazi. However, on December 11 General Wavell whose command stretched down into Africa, had ordered the Indian 4th Infantry Division to withdraw to take part in an offensive against Italian forces in Italian East Africa. O'Connor would state, "[This] came as a complete and very unpleasant surprise . . . It put 'paid' to the question of immediate exploitation . . . ". The Australian 6th Division replaced the Indian troops from December 14. The Australians had barely finished training, were missing their armoured regiment, and as yet had only one artillery regiment equipped with the new 25 pounder field guns.
   Exploitation continued nevertheless by the two armoured brigades and the Support Group of 7th Armoured Division with the infantry of 16th Infantry Brigade following up. By 15 December Sollum and Halfya had been captured as well as Fort Capuzzo while all Italian forces had been cleared from Egypt. 7th Armoured Division were concentrated south-west of Bardia awaiting the arrival of 6th Australian Division to make the attack on Bardia. By this time the Western Desert Force had taken 38,000 prisoners and captured 400 artillery pieces and 50 tanks while suffering casualties of 133 killed, 387 wounded and 8 missing. for a loss of 130 dead and 326 wounded of their own. The war booty included 462 guns of various kind, 12 serviceable medium tanks, 115 L3/35 tankettes and 708 motor vehicles. However the fighting was fierce.
   The assault on Bardia was launched at dawn on the south-western perimeter of the defences by the Australian 6th Infantry Division, supported by 1st battalion (machine gun) the Northumberland Fusiliers and the remaining 25 tanks of 7th RTR. 7th Armoured Division (which included companies of Free French Forces) were to ensure that the Bardia garrrison could neither withdraw nor be reinforced. after the remnants of the Italian Tenth Army was cut off and defeated at Beda Fomm.

Tobruk

Following the fall of Bardia, 7th Armoured Division with Australian 19th Brigade advanced to Tobruk which was surrounded on 9 January. Some fierce fighting took place and a company was forced to withdraw in an Italian counter-attack, in which the tough Australian troops lost 100 killed, wounded and captured.
   The Italian units at Tobruk comprised General della Mura's 61st Sirte Division, 45 tankettes, 20 medium tanks and 200 guns. In overall command was General Petassi Manella, commander of the XX Corps.
   The Allied infantry force comprised the 16th, 17th and 19th Brigades of Australian 6th Division under Major-General Iven MacKay supported by the 16 remaining Infantry tanks of 7 RTR and the machine-gun battalions of the Nothumberland Regiment and Cheshire Regiment. 7th Armoured Division with its unit of Free French Marines were to play the same containing role they'd at Bardia. Given the lack of tank numbers, heavy artillery bombardment was used to soften the Italian defenses. With their Browning machineguns, and four bombs each, the Vickers Wellington and Blenheim bombers also played an important part in the softening up of defences of the Tobruk garrison. The assault went in under the cover of darkness on the morning of 21 January. Once it appeared that the 2/3rd Battalion had breached the Italian defences, the leading companies of the 2/1st Battalion started their advance. However, one of the companies ran into booby-traps that killed or wounded several in a platoon. Major Abbot's company was given the task of clearing the forward platoon outposts, which it took after some confused fighting, having initially been held up by Post 55. Sergeant Hoddinot hurled grenades to overcome the bunkered platoon. At Post 62, despite tank and artillery fire, the enemy stood firm. Lieutenant Clark poured a mixture of crude oil and kerosene through the gap in the bunker to silence it. Eleven Italians died and 35 surrendered. As Captain Campbell's company reached the end of the first phase of the advance it came under fire from dug-in tanks. Captain Anderson and Lieutenant Russell were wounded and Lieutenant Russell killed. Despite encountering some stiff opposition, the 2/8th Battalion took 1,300 prisoners. At the same time, Italian gunners brought down fire on the battalion and Italian infantry counterattacked with the support of nine tanks. Under pressure from this strong battalion force, Campbell's company was forced to withdraw, having lost 100 killed, wounded and captured. At this point help arrived in the form of two British Matilda tanks. The companies fought their way forward with grenade, Bren, rifle and bayonet. They were met by a hail of fire. Lieutenant Trevorrow and Sergeant Duncan were seriously wounded, and two of the platoon commanders had bullet holes in their clothing or equipment. At this point Captain McDonald called forward two of the British Infantry tanks to engage a platoon holding Post 42. Some close-quarter fighting saw the enemy cleared from Post 41. As Captain Abbot's company continued its advance it came under fire from the Italian platoons dug in Posts 34 and 35, and was forced to withdraw.
   During the night 19th Brigade HQ attempted to negotiate a ceasefire with the commander of the Italian XX Corps and garrison in Tobruk. It was hoped they'd succeed, but a telephone call from the Italian supreme command put paid to their efforts. Mussolini himself had spoken personally to General Petassi Manella, forbidding him to surrender and informing him that squadrons of Italian bombers were on their way as reinforcements. Later that night Italian SM.79s carried out a surprise low-level attack, which bombed some 8,000 prisoners who had been gathered inside a fenced enclosure, killing and wounding hundreds of their men. This bombing broke the will of among those still prepared to fight.
   Next day, the capture of the remaining outposts from R1 to S11 was completed and assisted strongly by Infantry tanks of the Support Group and the 2nd Rifle Brigade and 1st King's Royal Rifle Corps which had arrived as reinforcements that morning. Meanwhile, the 7th Armoured Division which had also entered the perimeter from the Derna road that morning stood by to advance into the town if required. On the afternoon of the 26 January after a siege lasting 20 days and nights, General della Mura and the remaining 17,000 defenders surrendered. The Italians had lost 25,000 killed, wounded and captured. The Australians by comparison had 400 killed, wounded and taken prisoner.

Derna

In the meantime the Italian Supreme Command moved quickly to organize the Brigata Corazzato Speciale (BCS) or "Special Armored Brigade", consisting of 50 M-11 tanks, artillery pieces and supported by infantry formations specializing in the anti-tank role and sappers equipped with anti-tank mines. In hardly more than a month, the Italians dispatched this volunteer force under General Valentino Babini to North Africa.
Following the fall of Tobruk HQ British Troops Egypt was removed from the existing unwieldy line of command so that O'Connor reported directly to Wavell at Middle East Command. O'Connor continued the advance towards Derna with the Australian 6th Division while sending 7th Armoured Division south of the Jebel Akhdar mountains towards Mechili. The 2/11th Battalion first made contact with infantry of the BCS at the Derna airfield on 25 January and progress was difficult against particularly determined resistance. In the Derna-Giovanni Berta area held by infantry elements of the BCS there were fierce exchanges with Italian counterattacks taking place around Wadi Derna. on 27 January, an Australian battalion beat off a strong daylight attack from a force of at least a thousand Italians. That same day, concealed soldiers of the BCS ambushed a column of armoured vehicles of the 6th Cavalry Regiment and took three of the survivors prisoner. The advance of other units further to the south of the Wadi Derna eventually threatened the BCS with encirclement and it disengaged on the night of 28 January. Derna, a town of 10,000 residents itself was captured on January 26.

Battle of Beda Fomm

The rapid British advance caused the Italians to make a decision to evacuate Cyrenaica. In late January 1941, the British learned that the Italians were evacuating Cyrenaica along the main coastal road from Benghazi. The British 7th Armoured Division under Major General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh was dispatched to intercept the remnants of the fleeing Italian Tenth Army.
   Creagh's division was to travel via Msus and Antelat (the bottom of the semi-circle), while the Australian 6th Division chased the Italians along the coast road round the north of the Jebel Akhdar mountains (the curve of the semi-circle). The poor terrain was hard going for the tanks, and Creagh took the bold decision to send a flying column (christened Combe Force) south-west across the virtually unmapped Libyan Desert. Combe Force, under Lieutenant Colonel John Combe of the 11th Hussars, consisted of 11th Hussars, a squadron of King's Dragoon Guards, 2nd Rifle Brigade, a Royal Air Force armoured car squadron, anti-tank guns from 3 Royal Horse Artillery (RHA) and 'C' battery 4 RHA. The force totalled about 2,000 men. For the sake of speed, only light and Cruiser tanks were part of the Combe Force flying column.
   In the afternoon of 5 February 1941 Combe Force arrived at the Benghazi – Tripoli road and set up road blocks near Sidi Saleh, some north of Ajedabia and southwest of Antelat. The leading elements of the Italian Tenth Army arrived 30 minutes later and were blocked. By the evening 4th Armoured Brigade had reached Beda Fomm, overlooking the coastal road some to the north of them while 7th Armoured Support Group took a more northerly route to threaten the retreating Italian Tenth Army's flank and rear and prevent a breakout across the desert. Their prisoners included 22 generals Towards the end of April the Italian divisional commaders reviewed the Italo-German forces. A German officer shouted: "At the beginning of Italian-German cooperation on African soil, we swear to make the greatest effort for a joint victory for Great Germany and Great Italy. Long live Great Italy! Long live Great Germany!" The assembled troops roared: "We swear it!"
   Given other setbacks suffered during the early war years, the Allied troops of Operation Compass were highly publicized and became renown as "Wavell's Thirty Thousand," which was used as the title of a 1942 British documentary chronicling the campaign.

Quotes

Bonner Fellers: "General Wavell told me they were going to do manoeuvres, so I went up as an observer, and God dammit — it was the works."
Anonymous Coldstream Guards officer: "We have [takenprisoner] about 5 acres [20,000m²] of officers and 200 acres [800,000m²] of other ranks."
Anthony Eden: (after the battle of Bardia) "Never has so much been surrendered by so many to so few."
Rodolfo Graziani: (writing to Mussolini after the defeat) "In this theatre of operations a single armoured division is more important than an entire [infantry] army."

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